Alternative Sources of Alkaloids
One potential way of reducing pressure on wild populations of these psychedelic species is to seek out alternative sources of alkaloids where possible, such as through botanical alternatives or through other means of producing the desired alkaloids.
A number of other species related to iboga, also belonging to the Tabernathe genus, and other related genera such as Tabernaemontana and Voacanga, which all comprise the larger Apocynaceae family, also produce iboga alkaloids. Greater investigation of these species and their cultivation could help take pressure off the wild populations of iboga. The species Voacanga africana holds promise, being much more abundant than iboga, with the alkaloid voacangine it produces acting as a viable precursor for the semi-synthesis of ibogaine. Development of synthetic ibogaine derivatives such as 18-methoxycoronaridine (18-MC) may provide an additional option, with clinical trials examining its potential currently underway. Iboga is still likely to remain in demand given its particular alkaloid profile, so the cultivation of other plants and synthetic ibogaine derivatives is not likely to fully accommodate this demand.
While it is possible to synthesise ibogaine in a laboratory without using plants, no economically feasible method that is scalable has been developed, although there has been a very recent breakthrough with regard to ibogaine synthesis that may make this more accessible. Any manufacturers of ibogaine derived medications or those seeking iboga for psychospiritual purposes should ensure they source sustainably cultivated iboga, to ensure no further pressure is placed on wild populations of the plant.
There are several species of abundant, fast-growing, and easily cultivated columnar cacti, which offer a more sustainable alternative source of mescaline to the much slower-growing peyote cactus. These species, including San Pedro and Peruvian torch, comprise the genus Echinopsis (although the taxonomy is unresolved).
Syrian rue (Peganum harmala) offers a more sustainable source of the beta-carboline MAOI alkaloids found in ayahuasca vine. The seeds of the plant are a far more potent source of these alkaloids than the vine, and the seeds can be harvested in a manner that is not destructive to the plant, unlike when harvesting the vine. However, unlike the vine, Syrian rue seeds lack the alkaloid tetrahydroharmine (THH), and the seeds harbour other alkaloids, making correct dosing more critical (with there being less of a toxic “ceiling effect” with the vine).
As for the Sonoran Desert toad, synthetic 5-MeO-DMT provides a viable alternative. While there are trace amounts of other compounds, such as bufotenine, in the defensive secretion of the toad, at the levels they occur relative to concentrations of the 5-MeO-DMT, it is likely their influence will be negligible or non-existent. In light of this, the pure substance is an ample substitute for the toad secretion, while eliminating any risk of harm or exploitation of the toads. A few other possible synthesis options include transgenic biosynthesis of 5-MeO-DMT by yeast or E. coli bacteria (something that could also be applied to the production of iboga alkaloids) or cell-based biosynthesis of the toad’s parotoid gland secretions.
Education and Changing Behaviours of Psychedelic Consumers
Educating psychedelic consumers so as to affect behaviour change pertaining to the sourcing of psychedelics also has an important role to play. While there may be a bias in some circles towards “natural” substances being perceived as superior to synthetic compounds, highlighting the idea of reciprocity and the inherent imbalance of seeking personal healing by harming another living being may encourage some to reconsider and switch to synthetic sources.
When considering sources of mescaline, data from the 2024 Global Drug Survey revealed that while psychedelic consumers had a stronger preference for organic mescaline derived from cacti sources over synthetic mescaline, two thirds of the mescaline users surveyed indicated that they were conscious about the potential environmental impact of sourcing organic mescaline and would happily switch to synthetic sources (it should be noted that synthetic mescaline is a rare substance on the psychedelic underground).
Across five naturally occurring psychedelic substances, the highest preference among survey respondents was for using synthetic 5-MeO-DMT, with concern also expressed for the toads. However, it should be noted that these survey findings are derived from a sample of English-speaking psychedelic users and may not reflect those of the broader psychedelic-consuming population. However, the results demonstrate a clear preference for naturally derived psychedelics, but also a willingness to switch to synthetic sources, alternative botanical sources (e.g. substituting peyote for San Pedro), or ethically cultivated plants.
Peyote, iboga, and the ayahuasca vine are all sacred sacraments to the various Indigenous groups that use them, and so it would be highly unethical to suggest these groups swap their sacraments of choice for other sources; these recommendations apply to ludibund users.
Growing one’s own psychedelic plants may be feasible in some locations, depending on species, although it should be acknowledged that they exist at a complex intersection between law enforcement and drug regulation, environmental regulations (or lack thereof), Indigenous rights, and religious and spiritual beliefs. For example, San Pedro cultivation is legal in the USA and illegal in Canada, and vice versa for peyote. The caveat of regional variability aside, it is important to advocate for the availability of alternative sources of psychoactive substances over harvesting them from the wild, with cultivation often being the most obvious and readily available option.
It is possible to adopt a ‘harm reduction’ approach in some instances and come up with environmentally informed ethical guidelines for each of the naturally occurring psychedelics. For example, a non-profit organisation, Entheogenesis Australis, has created an identification guide to common acacias (that can be harvested for their DMT content), in order to protect rarer, more vulnerable species.
Local and Indigenous-Led Initiatives
Community-led cultivation initiatives of these psychedelic plants offer a pathway to sustainable production of these species. The Indigenous Medicine Conservation Fund deserves recognition for its work to safeguard all four species mentioned here. It is an Indigenous-led non-profit that seeks the sovereign protection and regeneration of these medicines, the ecologies in which they are embedded, and the traditional knowledge-informed practices they form an integral part of among the various Indigenous communities with which these species have a deep relationship. They have been instrumental in supporting community-led initiatives to sustainably cultivate or steward these species, with an approach centred on Indigenous governance and biocultural stewardship.
The ayahuasca vine is a tenacious plant and can be fairly easily grown in the tropics and subtropics. Local people based around the city of Iquitos in Peru (which could be considered as an epicentre of ayahuasca tourism in the Amazon) have already begun cultivating ayahuasca vine, with it being viewed as a ‘cash crop’. A number of ayahuasca retreat centres around Iquitos have also been practising ayahuasca cultivation, with some seeking to be totally self-sufficient in time. However, existing populations around Iquitos are not sufficient to meet demand, exacerbated by growing international demand, and cultivation efforts outside of the Amazonian region are already underway (this also applies to a more limited degree to iboga, with some cultivation efforts taking place in tropical locales outside of the central African region). B. caapi vines do not require maintenance when grown in an optimal setting, and they can be harvested in a sustainable manner, with regeneration possible if the rootstock of the plants remains in the ground, and new ayahuasca plants can also be propagated by the planting of vine cuttings.
The growing global demand for iboga and the resulting overharvesting this has driven has inspired some recent efforts to establish iboga cultivation in Gabon, in addition to Cameroon, Ghana and the Ivory Coast, with some manufacturers of iboga-derived medicines supporting some of the latter efforts. One notable initiative being spearheaded in Gabon is being undertaken by the NGO Blessings of the Forest, which is committed to preserving Gabon’s natural and cultural heritage. Through its initiatives, it seeks to protect biodiversity and promote sustainable resource management while improving the living conditions of rural communities, in addition to facilitating collaboration between local stakeholders and international partners. It has supported the establishment of iboga plantations by rural communities, with 13 village associations having planted 24,000 iboga trees on 14 plantations as of early 2023.
In the case of peyote, some Native American tribes have begun working on legal pathways to cultivate peyote for their NAC members, and there are sustainable harvesting, cultivation and repopulation efforts undertaken by the Indigenous Peyote Conservation Initiative in South Texas (e.g. harvesting only the green part of the cactus above its rootstock using a sharp blade rather than excavating the entire cactus will allow it to regrow in time). Such models could be replicated elsewhere.
Regenerative Agroforestry Approaches
Both the ayahuasca vine and iboga are plants that inhabit the tropical forest understory, meaning they are tolerant of partial shade. The ayahuasca vine appreciates the support of trees or other vegetation when growing, making it well-suited to being paired with sustainable agroforestry practices. B. caapi (and P. viridis) are already grown in this manner by members of the UDV. One notable approach is syntropic agroforestry, which blends Indigenous and scientific knowledge, follows a no-impact to low-impact approach that is underpinned by ecological principles, and offers a scalable means of achieving agricultural productivity that can support biodiversity and ecological restoration. This approach is being increasingly adopted in Brazil and elsewhere.
In the case of iboga cultivation, one relevant model being used elsewhere in Africa is that of ‘forest coffee’ cultivation, practised in the Bale Mountains National Park in Ethiopia, an area that comprises the coffee plant’s native habitat. The Coffea arabica plant is a forest understory shrub, similar to iboga, and in these areas where it is cultivated, the forest habitat is also preserved around it, allowing for the cultivation of coffee and the conservation of biodiverse forest areas at the same time. Iboga could be cultivated in a similar manner in the forests of central Africa. Alternatively, given its preference for forest understory and partial shade, it could also be integrated into sustainable agroforestry practices. One such approach is dynamic agroforestry, which is underpinned by ecological principles and seeks to combine agricultural productivity as part of natural forest-like systems that support biodiversity and provide a range of beneficial ecosystem services. Such an approach is increasingly being adopted in parts of West and Central Africa as a more ecologically sustainable means of cultivating cocoa than through monoculture plantation forestry.
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